The fractal structure of communities of practice: Implications for business organization.

Communities of practice (COP) are informal (sometimes formal) groupings of professionals with shared interests that form to facilitate the exchange of expertise and shared learning or to function as professional support networks. We analyse a dataset on the size of COPs and show that their distribution has a fractal structure similar to that found in huntergatherer social organisation and the structure of human personal social networks. Small communities up to about 40 in size can be managed democratically, but all larger communities require a leadership team structure. We show that frequency of interaction declines as size increases, as is the case in personal social networks. This suggests that professional work-oriented organisations may be subject to the same kinds of constraint imposed on human social organisation by the social brain. We discuss the implications for business management structure.

Linkages between Trade, CO2 Emissions and Healthcare Spending in China.

China has remained top among the carbon dioxide (CO2) emitting countries in the world, while it has a significant contribution to world trade after World Trade Organization (WTO) reforms in China. The dramatic increase in CO2 emissions has been witnessed. This study examines the linkages between trade openness, CO2 emissions, and healthcare expenditures in China using time series data for the period 1990-2017. The study extended a theoretical model by adding healthcare expenditures, CO2 emissions, and trade openness with some constraints. We used simultaneous equation method for the analysis, and the outcomes suggest that trade is significantly affecting the CO2 emissions in the country, resulting in an increase of healthcare expenditures. The government needs reforms and trade policy embodied green energy consumption in the industrial sector, especially in export sector industries. In addition, carbon tax may be an important tool to reduce CO2 emissions and it may compensate the healthcare spending in the country.

Occurrence of Salmonella sp. in poultry carcasses evaluated from the retail trade between 2007 and 2013 in Paraná state, Brazil / Ocorrência de Salmonella sp. em carcaças de frango avaliadas a partir do comércio varejista entre 2007 e 2013 no estado do Paraná, Brasil

Poultry meat is often involved as a vehicle for microorganisms that cause food-borne diseases. Salmonella sp. is a major pathogen involved in outbreaks around the world. Based on its importance, the objective of this study was to determine the occurrence of Salmonella sp. in frozen and chilled poultry carcasses slaughtered and marketed in the western region of Paraná state, Brazil. A total of 340 samples were collected between January 2007 and April 2013, with 66 (19.41%) carcasses positive for Salmonella sp. It can be concluded from the results obtained that the occurrence of Salmonella sp. in poultry carcasses remains high, even though it is a product marketed refrigerated or frozen, methods considered appropriate for food preservation. A lower occurrence result was expected due to the 14-year implementation of the national pathogen reduction program established by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply aimed at a gradual reduction in the occurrence of Salmonella sp. in these products through constant monitoring of carcasses immediately after slaughter.(AU)

A carne de aves é um alimento que frequentemente encontra-se envolvido como veículo de micro-organismos causadores de enfermidades, sendo Salmonella sp. um desses agentes comumente envolvidos nessas enfermidades em todo o mundo. Com isso, o objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a ocorrência de Salmonella sp. em carcaças de frango congeladas e refrigeradas, abatidas e comercializadas na região oeste do estado do Paraná. Um total de 340 amostras foram coletadas entre janeiro de 2007 e abril de 2013. Das amostras analisadas, 66 (19,41%) das carcaças foram positivas para Salmonella sp. De acordo com os resultados obtidos pode-se concluir que a ocorrência de Salmonella sp. em carcaças de frangos permanece alta, mesmo sendo produtos comercializados refrigerados ou congelados, métodos considerados adequados para conservação de alimentos. Um resultado de menor ocorrência era esperado devido à implementação de 14 anos do Programa Nacional de Redução de Patógenos estabelecido pelo Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento visando uma redução gradual na ocorrência de Salmonella sp. nestes produtos através de monitoramento constante de carcaças imediatamente após o abate.(AU)

Neighborhood Variation in the Price of Cheap Tobacco Products in California: Results From Healthy Stores for a Healthy Community.

BACKGROUND: Retail marketing surveillance research highlights concerns about lower priced cigarettes in neighborhoods with a higher proportion of racial/ethnic minorities but focuses almost exclusively on premium brands. To remedy this gap in the literature, the current study examines neighborhood variation in prices for the cheapest cigarettes and a popular brand of cigarillos in a large statewide sample of licensed tobacco retailers in a low-tax state. METHODS: All 61 local health departments in California trained data collectors to conduct observations in a census of eligible licensed tobacco retailers in randomly selected zip codes (n = 7393 stores, completion rate=91%). Data were collected in 2013, when California had a low and stagnant tobacco tax. Two prices were requested: the cheapest cigarette pack regardless of brand and a single, flavored Swisher Sweets cigarillo. Multilevel models (stores clustered in tracts) examined prices (before sales tax) as a function of neighborhood race/ethnicity and proportion of school-age youth (aged 5-17). Models adjusted for store type and median household income. RESULTS: Approximately 84% of stores sold cigarettes for less than $5 and a Swisher Sweets cigarillo was available for less than $1 in 74% of stores that sold the brand. The cheapest cigarettes cost even less in neighborhoods with a higher proportion of school-age residents and Asian/Pacific Islanders. CONCLUSIONS: Neighborhood disparities in the price of the cheapest combustible tobacco products are a public health threat. Policy changes that make all tobacco products, especially combustible products, less available and more costly may reduce disparities in their use and protect public health. IMPLICATIONS: Much of what is known about neighborhood variation in the price of combustible tobacco products focuses on premium brand cigarettes. The current study extends this literature in two ways, by studying prices for the cheapest cigarette pack regardless of brand and a popular brand of flavored cigarillos and by reporting data from the largest statewide sample of licensed tobacco retailers. Significantly lower prices in neighborhoods with a higher proportion of youth and of racial/ethnic groups with higher smoking prevalence are a cause of concern. The study results underscore the need for policies that reduce availability and increase price of combustible tobacco products, particularly in states with low, stagnant tobacco taxes.

Vape Shop Density and Socio-Demographic Disparities: A US Census Tract Analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Vape shops are an emerging business specializing in the sales and promotion of e-cigarette, e-juice, and other vaping products. This study sought to evaluate the associations between vape shop density and socio-demographic characteristics at the US census tract level. METHODS: Vape shop data (n = 9943) were collected from three online directories: Yelp.com, Yellowpages.com, and Guidetovaping.com. Addresses of vape shops were geocoded and the density per 10 000 people was estimated at each US census tract. Zero inflated negative binomial regression model was performed to examine the socio-demographic factors associated with vape shop density. RESULTS: Overall, there was a higher vape shop density in urban versus nonurban census tracts. In urban areas, higher vape shop density was associated with larger proportions of Hispanics and Asians, adults aged 18-44 years old and higher poverty, while the decrease in vape shop density was associated with larger proportions of population under 18 years old, higher education, larger household size, and a higher percentage of owner occupied housing units. In nonurban areas, higher vape shop density was associated larger proportions of African Americans and Hispanics, smaller household size and a lower percentage of owner occupied housing units. CONCLUSION: At the national level, there are inequalities of vape shop density by some socio-demographic characteristics and heterogeneity between urban and nonurban areas. IMPLICATIONS: Vape shops are more likely to be concentrated in areas where people with a higher risk for vaping and smoking reside. Our findings could inform initiatives aimed at a stronger licensing requirement for vape shops and federal and state-level regulations of this industry to prevent vape shop from targeting minority and other socially disadvantaged groups.

Evaluation of pseudoephedrine pharmacy sales before and after mandatory recording requirements in Western Australia: a case study.

BACKGROUND: A community pharmacy real-time electronic recording program, ProjectSTOP, enables Australian community pharmacists to verify pseudoephedrine requests. In Western Australia the program was available for voluntary use from April 2007 and became mandatory November 2010. This case study explores the effectiveness of the program by reviewing the total requests for pseudoephedrine products, and the proportion of requests which were classified as 'denied sales' before and after mandatory implementation. Seasonal and annual trends in these measures are also evaluated. METHODS: ProjectSTOP data recordings for Western Australia pharmacies between 1 December 2007 and 28 February 2014 were analysed. Data included a de-identified pharmacy number and date of each pseudoephedrine product request. The total number of requests and sale classification (allowed, denied, safety, or not recorded) were calculated for each month/pharmacy. The potential influence of mandatory reporting using ProjectSTOP was investigated using a Regression Discontinuity Design. Correlations between sales from the same pharmacy were taken into account by classifying the pharmacy number as a random effect. The main effects of year (continuous variable), and season (categorical variable) were also included in the model. RESULTS: There was a small but steady decline in the total requests for pseudoephedrine per month per 100,000 population (per pharmacy) from the time of mandatory reporting. The number of denied sales showed a steady increase up until mandatory reporting, after which it showed a significant decline over time. Total sales were heavily influenced by season, as expected (highest in winter, least in summer). The seasonal pattern was less pronounced for denied sales, which were highest in winter and similar across other seasons. The pattern over time for safety sales was similar to that for denied sales, with a clear change occurring around the time of mandatory reporting. CONCLUSION: Results indicate a decrease in pseudoephedrine product requests in Western Australia community pharmacies. Findings suggest ProjectSTOP has been successful in addressing suspicious sales and potential diversion however ongoing data review is recommended.

Prices for Tobacco and Nontobacco Products in Pharmacies Versus Other Stores: Results From Retail Marketing Surveillance in California and in the United States.

OBJECTIVES: To examine disparities in the price of tobacco and nontobacco products in pharmacies compared with other types of stores. METHODS: We recorded the prices of Marlboro, Newport, the cheapest cigarettes, and bottled water in a random sample of licensed tobacco retailers (n = 579) in California in 2014. We collected comparable data from retailers (n = 2603) in school enrollment zones for representative samples of US 8th, 10th, and 12th graders in 2012. Ordinary least squares regressions modeled pretax prices as a function of store type and neighborhood demographics. RESULTS: In both studies, the cheapest cigarettes cost significantly less in pharmacies than other stores; the average estimated difference was $0.47 to $1.19 less in California. We observed similar patterns for premium-brand cigarettes. Conversely, bottled water cost significantly more in pharmacies than elsewhere. Newport cost less in areas with higher proportions of African Americans; other cigarette prices were related to neighborhood income and age. Neighborhood demographics were not related to water prices. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with other stores, pharmacies charged customers less for cigarettes and more for bottled water. State and local policies to promote tobacco-free pharmacies would eliminate an important source of discounted cigarettes.

Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components among Japanese Workers by Clustered Business Category.

The present study was a cross-sectional study conducted to reveal the prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its components and describe the features of such prevalence among Japanese workers by clustered business category using big data. The data of approximately 120,000 workers were obtained from a national representative insurance organization, and the study analyzed the health checkup and questionnaire results according to the field of business of each subject. Abnormalities found during the checkups such as excessive waist circumference, hypertension or glucose intolerance, and metabolic syndrome, were recorded. All subjects were classified by business field into 18 categories based on The North American Industry Classification System. Based on the criteria of the Japanese Committee for the Diagnostic Criteria of Metabolic Syndrome, the standardized prevalence ratio (SPR) of metabolic syndrome and its components by business category was calculated, and the 95% confidence interval of the SPR was computed. Hierarchical cluster analysis was then performed based on the SPR of metabolic syndrome components, and the 18 business categories were classified into three clusters for both males and females. The following business categories were at significantly high risk of metabolic syndrome: among males, Construction, Transportation, Professional Services, and Cooperative Association; and among females, Health Care and Cooperative Association. The results of the cluster analysis indicated one cluster for each gender with a higher prevalence of metabolic syndrome components; among males, a cluster consisting of Manufacturing, Transportation, Finance, and Cooperative Association, and among females, a cluster consisting of Mining, Transportation, Finance, Accommodation, and Cooperative Association. These findings reveal that, when providing health guidance and support regarding metabolic syndrome, consideration must be given to its components and the variety of its prevalence rates by business category and gender.